{"id":595,"date":"2008-09-08T06:57:07","date_gmt":"2008-09-08T11:57:07","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2008\/09\/simple-question-simple-answer-no\/"},"modified":"2009-03-09T16:30:48","modified_gmt":"2009-03-09T21:30:48","slug":"simple-question-simple-answer-no","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2008\/09\/simple-question-simple-answer-no\/","title":{"rendered":"Simple Question, Simple Answer&#8230; Not <lang_fr>Les question simples n&#8217;appellent pas toujours des r\u00e9ponses simples<\/lang_fr>"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"kcite-section\" kcite-section-id=\"595\">\n<p><small>Guest commentary by Spencer R. Weart, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.aip.org\/history\/climate\/\">American Institute of Physics<\/a><\/small><\/p>\n<p>I often get emails from scientifically trained people who are looking for a straightforward calculation of the global warming that greenhouse gas emissions will bring. What are the physics equations and data on gases that predict just how far the temperature will rise? A natural question, when public expositions of the greenhouse effect usually present it as a matter of elementary physics. These people, typically senior engineers, get suspicious when experts seem to evade their question. Some try to work out the answer themselves (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2008\/07\/once-more-unto-the-bray\/\">Lord Monckton<\/a> for example) and complain that the experts dismiss their beautiful logic.<\/p>\n<p>The engineers&#8217; demand that the case for dangerous global warming be proved with a page or so of equations does sound reasonable, and it has a long history. The history reveals how the nature of the climate system inevitably betrays a lover of simple answers.<\/p>\n<p><lang_fr>Billet par l&#8217;invit\u00e9 Spencer R. Weart, American Institute of Physics (traduit par Jean-Denis Vauguet)<\/lang_fr><br \/>\n<lang_ja>A translation in Japanese is available <a href=\"\/docs\/weart_ja.html\">here<\/a><\/lang_ja><br \/>\n<lang_fi>Guest commentary by Spencer R. Weart <a href=\"http:\/\/www.aip.org\/history\/climate\/\">American Institute of Physics<\/a><\/lang_fi><br \/>\n<lang_cz>\u010cesk\u00fd p\u0159eklad k dispozici <a href=\"http:\/\/greenatom.wordpress.com\/2009\/03\/09\/preklad-jednoducha-otazka-jednoducha-odpoved-a-nebo-taky-ne\/\">zde<\/a>. <\/lang_cz><br \/>\n<!--more--><\/p>\n<p>The simplest approach to calculating the Earth&#8217;s surface temperature would be to treat the atmosphere as a single uniform slab, like a pane of glass suspended above the surface (much as we see in <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2007\/04\/learning-from-a-simple-model\/\">elementary explanations<\/a> of the &#8220;greenhouse&#8221; effect). But the equations do not yield a number for global warming that is even remotely plausible. You can&#8217;t work with an average, squashing together the way heat radiation goes through the dense, warm, humid lower atmosphere with the way it goes through the thin, cold, dry upper atmosphere. Already in the 19th century, physicists moved on to a &#8220;one-dimensional&#8221; model. That is, they pretended that the atmosphere was the same everywhere around the planet, and studied how radiation was transmitted or absorbed as it went up or down through a column of air stretching from ground level to the top of the atmosphere. This is the study of &#8220;radiative transfer,&#8221; an elegant and difficult branch of theory. You would figure how sunlight passed through each layer of the atmosphere to the surface, and how the heat energy that was radiated back up from the surface heated up each layer, and was shuttled back and forth among the layers, or escaped into space.<\/p>\n<p>When students learn physics, they are taught about many simple systems that bow to the power of a few laws, yielding wonderfully precise answers: a page or so of equations and you&#8217;re done. Teachers rarely point out that these systems are plucked from a far larger set of systems that are mostly nowhere near so tractable. The one-dimensional atmospheric model can&#8217;t be solved with a page of mathematics. You have to divide the column of air into a set of levels, get out your pencil or computer, and calculate what happens at each level. Worse, carbon dioxide and water vapor (the two main greenhouse gases) absorb and scatter differently at different wavelengths. So you have to make the same long set of calculations repeatedly, once for each section of the radiation spectrum. <\/p>\n<p>It was not until the 1950s that scientists had both good data on the absorption of infrared radiation, and digital computers that could speed through the multitudinous calculations. Gilbert N. Plass used the data and computers to demonstrate that adding carbon dioxide to a column of air <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2007\/06\/a-saturated-gassy-argument\/\">would raise the surface temperature.<\/a> But nobody believed the precise number he calculated (2.5\u00baC of warming if the level of CO<sub>2<\/sub> doubled). Critics pointed out that he had ignored a number of crucial effects. First of all, if global temperature started to rise, the atmosphere would contain more water vapor. Its own greenhouse effect would make for more warming. On the other hand, with more water vapor wouldn&#8217;t there be more clouds? And wouldn&#8217;t those shade the planet and make for less warming? Neither Plass nor anyone before him had tried to calculate changes in cloudiness. (For details and references see this <a href=\"http:\/\/www.aip.org\/history\/climate\/Radmath.htm\">history site<\/a>.)<\/p>\n<p>Fritz M\u00f6ller followed up with a pioneering computation that took into account the increase of absolute humidity with temperature. Oops&#8230; his results showed a monstrous feedback. As the humidity rose, the water vapor would add its greenhouse effect, and the temperature might soar. The model could give an almost arbitrarily high temperature! This weird result stimulated Syukuro Manabe to develop a more realistic one-dimensional model. He included in his column of air the way convective updrafts carry heat up from the surface, a basic process that nearly every earlier calculation had failed to take into account. It was no wonder M\u00f6ller&#8217;s surface had heated up without limit: his model had not used the fact that hot air would rise. Manabe also worked up a rough calculation for the effects of clouds. By 1967, in collaboration with Richard Wetherald, he was ready to see what might result from raising the level of CO<sub>2<\/sub>. <a href=\"http:\/\/ams.allenpress.com\/amsonline\/?request=get-document&#038;issn=1520-0469&#038;volume=024&#038;page=241\">Their model<\/a> predicted that if the amount of CO<sub>2<\/sub> doubled, global temperature would rise roughly two degrees C. This was probably the first paper to convince many scientists that they needed to think seriously about greenhouse warming. The computation was, so to speak, a &#8220;proof of principle.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p>But it would do little good to present a copy of the Manabe-Wetherald paper to a senior engineer who demands a proof that global warming is a problem. The paper gives only a sketch of complex and lengthy computations that take place, so to speak, offstage. And nobody at the time or since would trust the paper&#8217;s numbers as a precise prediction. There were still too many important factors that the model did not include. For example, it was only in the 1970s that scientists realized they had to take into account how smoke, dust and other aerosols from human activity interact with radiation, and how the aerosols affect cloudiness as well. And so on and so forth.<\/p>\n<p>The greenhouse problem was not the first time climatologists hit this wall. Consider, for example, attempts to calculate the trade winds, a simple and important feature of the atmosphere. For generations, theorists wrote down the basic equations for fluid flow and heat transfer on the surface of a rotating sphere, aiming to produce a precise description of our planet&#8217;s structure of convective cells and winds in a few lines of equations&#8230; or a few pages&#8230; or a few dozen pages. They always failed. It was only with the advent of powerful digital computers in the 1960s that people were able to solve the problem through millions of numerical computations. If someone asks for an &#8220;explanation&#8221; of the trade winds, we can wave our hands and talk about tropical heating, the rotation of the earth and baroclinic instability. But if we are pressed for details with actual numbers, we can do no more than dump a truckload of printouts showing all the arithmetic computations.<\/p>\n<p>I&#8217;m not saying we don&#8217;t understand the greenhouse effect. We understand the basic physics just fine, and can explain it in a minute to a curious non-scientist. (Like this: greenhouse gases let sunlight through to the Earth&#8217;s surface, which gets warm; the surface sends infrared radiation back up, which is absorbed by the gases at various levels and warms up the air; the air radiates some of this energy back to the surface, keeping it warmer than it would be without the gases.) For a scientist, you can give <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2007\/08\/the-co2-problem-in-6-easy-steps\/\">a technical explanation in a few paragraphs.<\/a> But if you want to get reliable numbers &#8211; if you want to know whether raising the level of greenhouse gases will bring a trivial warming or a catastrophe &#8211; you have to figure in humidity, convection, aerosol pollution, and a pile of other features of the climate system, all fitted together in lengthy computer runs.<\/p>\n<p>Physics is rich in phenomena that are simple in appearance but cannot be calculated in simple terms. Global warming is like that. People may yearn for a short, clear way to predict how much warming we are likely to face. Alas, no such simple calculation exists. The actual temperature rise is an emergent property resulting from interactions among hundreds of factors. People who refuse to acknowledge that complexity should not be surprised when their demands for an easy calculation go unanswered.<\/p>\n<p><lang_fr><br \/>\nJe re\u00e7ois fr\u00e9quemment des emails de personnes, dipl\u00f4m\u00e9es en sciences, \u00e0 la recherche d&#8217;une r\u00e9ponse simple quant au calcul du r\u00e9chauffement global futur induit par les \u00e9missions de gaz \u00e0 effet de serre. \u00ab Quelles sont les \u00e9quations physiques et les donn\u00e9es sur les gaz n\u00e9cessaires pour pr\u00e9dire \u00e0 coup s\u00fbr l&#8217;\u00e9l\u00e9vation de temp\u00e9rature ? \u00bb Cette question est d&#8217;autant plus naturelle que nombre d&#8217;expos\u00e9s publiques sur le th\u00e8me de l&#8217;effet de serre en font une affaire de physique somme toute \u00e9l\u00e9mentaire. Les personnes qui me contactent, typiquement des ing\u00e9nieurs exp\u00e9riment\u00e9s, ne peuvent d\u00e8s lors que trouver louche que les experts semblent \u00e9luder leurs questions. Certains tentent de trouver une r\u00e9ponse par eux-m\u00eames (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2008\/07\/once-more-unto-the-bray\/\">Lord Monckton<\/a> par exemple) et se plaignent d&#8217;\u00eatre d\u00e9bout\u00e9s par ces m\u00eames experts, qui rejettent leurs bels \u00e9difices logiques.<\/p>\n<p>Prouver la v\u00e9racit\u00e9 du danger d&#8217;un r\u00e9chauffement climatique en une ou deux pages d&#8217;\u00e9quations : cette demande \u00e9manant des ing\u00e9nieurs semble bien raisonnable et s&#8217;accompagne d&#8217;une longue histoire, laquelle montre bien comment la construction d&#8217;un mod\u00e8le climatique trahie la recherche a priori d&#8217;une r\u00e9ponse plus ou moins simple.<\/p>\n<p>La mani\u00e8re la plus directe pour calculer la temp\u00e9rature de surface de la Terre serait de consid\u00e9rer l&#8217;atmosph\u00e8re comme une seule couche uniforme, tel un panneau de verre en suspension \u00e0 la surface (c&#8217;est-\u00e0-dire \u00e0 peu de chose pr\u00e8s ce qu&#8217;on voit dans les explications triviales de l&#8217;effet de serre <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2007\/04\/learning-from-a-simple-model\/\">ici<\/a> et l\u00e0). Mais les \u00e9quations associ\u00e9es \u00e0 ce type de mod\u00e8le d\u00e9livrent un r\u00e9sultat en temp\u00e9rature qui n&#8217;est m\u00eame pas de l&#8217;ordre du plausible quant au r\u00e9chauffement. Il n&#8217;est pas possible de travailler sur une moyenne globale, car elle d\u00e9truit in\u00e9vitablement les importantes diff\u00e9rences entre les transferts de chaleur dans une atmosph\u00e8re dense, chaude et humide d&#8217;une part, une atmosph\u00e8re fine, froide et s\u00e8che d&#8217;autre part. D\u00e8s le XIXe si\u00e8cle, les physiciens sont pass\u00e9s \u00e0 un mod\u00e8le 1D : l&#8217;atmosph\u00e8re \u00e9tant pos\u00e9e comme poss\u00e9dant une structure verticale identique en tout point du globe, ils \u00e9tudi\u00e8rent la fa\u00e7on dont la radiation \u00e9tait transmise ou absorb\u00e9e lors de sa mont\u00e9e ou descente \u00e0 travers une colonne d&#8217;air, de la surface de la Terre au sommet de l&#8217;atmosph\u00e8re. Il s&#8217;agit-l\u00e0 de l&#8217;\u00e9tude du transfert radiatif, une branche th\u00e9orique tout aussi \u00e9l\u00e9gante que difficile. Elle explique comment la lumi\u00e8re solaire traverse chaque couche de l&#8217;atmosph\u00e8re, jusqu&#8217;\u00e0 la surface, comment l&#8217;\u00e9nergie thermique r\u00e9emise par la surface chauffe \u00e0 son tour ces couches, ainsi que ses modes de diffusion entre les couches (r\u00e9flection, \u00e9chapp\u00e9e finale vers l&#8217;espace).<\/p>\n<p>Lorsque les \u00e9tudiants apprennent la physique, des syst\u00e8mes simples leur sont enseign\u00e9s : ils reposent sur peu de lois, puissantes, qui donnent des r\u00e9sultats pr\u00e9cis. Une page ou deux d&#8217;\u00e9quations suffit pour en faire le tour. Peu de professeurs mettent l&#8217;accent ou m\u00eame mentionnent que ces syst\u00e8mes sont en fait issus d&#8217;ensembles plus larges, bien moins dociles. Le mod\u00e8le 1D de l&#8217;atmosph\u00e8re ne peut par exemple pas \u00eatre r\u00e9solu en une seule belle page de math\u00e9matiques. Vous devez d\u00e9composer la colonne d&#8217;air en un ensemble de couches et r\u00e9aliser des calculs manuels ou num\u00e9riques pour chacune d&#8217;elles. Il se trouve que pour compliquer la donne, le dioxyde de carbone et la vapeur d&#8217;eau (les deux principaux gaz \u00e0 effet de serre) absorbent et se dispersent diff\u00e9remment selon la longueur d&#8217;onde du rayonnement : les calculs deviennent immanquablement r\u00e9p\u00e9titifs, du fait de la d\u00e9composition du spectre \u00e0 consid\u00e9rer.<\/p>\n<p>Il a fallut attendre les ann\u00e9es 50 pour que les scientifiques disposent de bonnes donn\u00e9es pour l&#8217;\u00e9mission infrarouge et d&#8217;ordinateurs suffisamment puissants pour g\u00e9rer les immenses quantit\u00e9s de calculs n\u00e9cessaires. Gilbert N. Plass a utilis\u00e9 donn\u00e9es et ordinateurs pour d\u00e9montrer qu&#8217;un ajout de dioxyde de carbone \u00e0 une colonne d&#8217;air doit induire <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2007\/06\/a-saturated-gassy-argument\/\">une augmentation de la temp\u00e9rature de surface<\/a>; mais pour ce qui est de la valeur calcul\u00e9e, personne n&#8217;y croyait (2,5 degr\u00e9s de plus si la taux de CO2 doublait). Les critiques pointaient du doigt l&#8217;oubli d&#8217;un certain nombre d&#8217;effets essentiels. Pour commencer, si la temp\u00e9rature commence \u00e0 augmenter, l&#8217;atmosph\u00e8re doit contenir plus de vapeur d&#8217;eau, g\u00e9n\u00e9rant son propre effet de serre et induisant une hausse plus importante des temp\u00e9ratures. Toutefois, dans le m\u00eame temps, plus de vapeur d&#8217;eau ne signifie t-il pas plus de nuages, parasols naturels \u00e9ventuels de la Terre ? Ni Plass, ni personne avant lui n&#8217;avait essay\u00e9 de calculer l&#8217;effet sur la formation des nuages (pour des d\u00e9tails et des r\u00e9f\u00e9rences, cf. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.aip.org\/history\/climate\/Radmath.htm\">ce site<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>Fritz M\u00f6ller proposa alors un calcul novateur qui prenait en compte l&#8217;augmentation de l&#8217;humidit\u00e9 absolue en fonction de la temp\u00e9rature. Que n&#8217;avait-il tent\u00e9 ! Ses calculs montrait un \u00e9norme feedback (r\u00e9troaction positive). En r\u00e9ponse \u00e0 une augmentation de l&#8217;humidit\u00e9, la vapeur d&#8217;eau induisait bien son effet de serre, et la temp\u00e9rature montait en fl\u00e8che\u2026 si bien que le mod\u00e8le pouvait donner \u00e0 peu pr\u00e8s n&#8217;importe quelle valeur \u00e9lev\u00e9e ! Ce r\u00e9sultat \u00e9trange poussa Syukuro Manabe \u00e0 d\u00e9velopper un mod\u00e8le 1D un peu plus r\u00e9aliste. Il introduisit l&#8217;effet des courants ascendants qui transportent de la chaleur depuis la surface, un ph\u00e9nom\u00e8ne que presque aucun des calculs pr\u00e9c\u00e9dents n&#8217;avait r\u00e9ussi \u00e0 prendre en compte. Il apparut clairement pourquoi la temp\u00e9rature dans l&#8217;estimation de M\u00f6ller s&#8217;envolait : il n&#8217;avait tout simplement pas tenu compte du fait que l&#8217;air chaud s&#8217;\u00e9l\u00e8verait. Manabe travailla \u00e9galement \u00e0 une estimation rapide de l&#8217;effet des nuages. En 1967, en collaboration avec Richard Wetherald, il \u00e9tait pr\u00eat \u00e0 faire des pr\u00e9dictions dans le cas o\u00f9 la teneur en CO2 doublerait. Leur mod\u00e8le estimait \u00e9galement une r\u00e9ponse positive en temp\u00e9rature, d&#8217;environ deux degr\u00e9s. Ce fut certainement <a href=\"http:\/\/ams.allenpress.com\/amsonline\/?request=get-document&#038;issn=1520-0469&#038;volume=024&#038;page=241\">le premier article<\/a> qui fit prendre conscience \u00e0 de nombreux scientifiques qu&#8217;ils devraient peut-\u00eatre commencer \u00e0 r\u00e9fl\u00e9chir s\u00e9rieusement \u00e0 l&#8217;id\u00e9e d&#8217;un r\u00e9chauffement climatique. Le calcul num\u00e9rique devint, pour ainsi dire, une \u00ab preuve de principe. \u00bb<\/p>\n<p>Il serait assez malais\u00e9 de proposer cet article de Manabe-Wetherald \u00e0 notre ing\u00e9nieur \u00e0 la recherche d&#8217;une d\u00e9monstration du fait que le r\u00e9chauffement global est un probl\u00e8me en soi : l&#8217;article en question ne donne qu&#8217;un rapide aper\u00e7u d&#8217;un ensemble de calculs longs et complexes qui ont, pour ainsi dire, eu lieu en coulisses. Par ailleurs, personne \u00e0 l&#8217;\u00e9poque de sa parution ou depuis lors n&#8217;aurait attach\u00e9 beaucoup de valeur aux estimations avanc\u00e9es. De nombreux facteurs n&#8217;\u00e9taient toujours pas int\u00e9gr\u00e9s au mod\u00e8le utilis\u00e9. Par exemple, c&#8217;est seulement dans les ann\u00e9es 70 que les scientifiques ont r\u00e9alis\u00e9s qu&#8217;ils devaient consid\u00e9rer les interactions entre la fum\u00e9e, les poussi\u00e8res, tous les a\u00e9rosols divers issus de l&#8217;activit\u00e9 humaine, et les rayonnements, ainsi que la fa\u00e7on dont ces a\u00e9rosols influaient sur la formation des nuages. Etc, etc.<\/p>\n<p>Le probl\u00e8me du r\u00e9chauffement climatique n&#8217;est pas un cas unique ; les climatologues se sont d\u00e9j\u00e0 heurt\u00e9s \u00e0 de pareils murs. Voyez par exemple les tentatives de calculs des aliz\u00e9s, une composante simple et essentielle de la dynamique de l&#8217;atmosph\u00e8re. Pendant des g\u00e9n\u00e9rations, les th\u00e9oriciens ont accumul\u00e9 des id\u00e9es sur les \u00e9quations gouvernant le comportement d&#8217;un fluide et le transfert de chaleur \u00e0 la surface d&#8217;une sph\u00e8re en rotation, dans l&#8217;espoir de construire une description pr\u00e9cise de la structure des cellules convectives et des vents de notre plan\u00e8te, le tout en quelques lignes d&#8217;\u00e9quations. Ou quelques pages. Ou dizaines de pages\u2026 ? \u00c9checs r\u00e9p\u00e9t\u00e9s. C&#8217;est seulement avec l&#8217;av\u00e8nement des calculateurs dans les ann\u00e9es 60 que des gens furent en mesure d&#8217;apporter une solution \u00e0 ce probl\u00e8me, moyennant plusieurs millions de calculs num\u00e9riques. Si bien que, si quelqu&#8217;un nous demande aujourd&#8217;hui une \u00ab explication \u00bb du ph\u00e9nom\u00e8ne des aliz\u00e9s, nous pouvons nous \u00e9pancher sur tout un ensemble de sujets propices \u00e0 la discussion \u2014 chauffage aux tropiques, rotation de la Terre, instabilit\u00e9 barocline \u2014 mais s&#8217;il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;en venir aux d\u00e9tails, de donner dans le quantitatif, nous ne pouvons faire mieux que d&#8217;ensevelir notre interlocuteur sous des tonnes de papiers donnant les r\u00e9sultats des innombrables calculs effectu\u00e9s.  <\/p>\n<p>Attention : je ne suis pas entrain de dire que nous ne comprenons pas l&#8217;effet de serre ou ce genre de chose. Nous comprenons tr\u00e8s bien la physique \u00e9l\u00e9mentaire qu&#8217;il y a derri\u00e8re, et nous sommes capables d&#8217;en expliquer l&#8217;essentiel, dans les grandes lignes et dans la minute, \u00e0 un public non scientifique (voyons voir\u2026 \u00ab les gaz \u00e0 effet de serre laissent passer la lumi\u00e8re en provenance du Soleil, dans les longueurs d&#8217;onde du visible, laquelle lumi\u00e8re atteint la surface de la Terre, qui se r\u00e9chauffe. La surface r\u00e9emet dans l&#8217;infrarouge un rayonnement qui est cette fois plus ou moins absorb\u00e9 par les gaz \u00e0 effet de serre selon leur nature, ce qui r\u00e9chauffe l&#8217;air. Cet air renvoie une partie de cette \u00e9nergie vers la surface, ce qui la maintient plus chaude que si les gaz n&#8217;\u00e9taient pas pr\u00e9sents. \u00bb). Une explication plus technique, toujours \u00e0 destination de non-scientifiques, pourrait tenir <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2007\/08\/the-co2-problem-in-6-easy-steps\/\">en quelques paragraphes<\/a>. Mais si vous voulez argumenter sur des valeurs fiables \u2014 si vous voulez savoir si une augmentation des taux en gaz \u00e0 effet de serre induit un r\u00e9chauffement mineur ou catastrophique \u2014 vous devez tout \u00e0 coup tenir compte de l&#8217;humidit\u00e9, de la convection, de la pollution en a\u00e9rosols, de tout un tas d&#8217;autres composantes du syst\u00e8me climatique, le tout regroup\u00e9 dans de longs processus de calculs num\u00e9riques.<\/p>\n<p>La physique est riche de ph\u00e9nom\u00e8nes simples en apparence mais dont l&#8217;estimation par le calcul ne peut se faire en termes simples. Le r\u00e9chauffement climatique est l&#8217;un d&#8217;eux. Les gens se languissent d&#8217;un moyen rapide de d\u00e9terminer sans ambigu\u00eft\u00e9 l&#8217;ampleur du r\u00e9chauffement \u00e0 venir. H\u00e9las, de tels calculs n&#8217;existent pas. La hausse actuelle des temp\u00e9rature est un ph\u00e9nom\u00e8ne nouveau qui r\u00e9sulte de l&#8217;interaction de centaines de facteurs. Les gens qui refusent de reconna\u00eetre cette complexit\u00e9 ne devraient d\u00e8s lors pas \u00eatre surpris de ne pas se voir donner de formule magique.<\/lang_fr><\/p>\n<p><lang_fi><br \/>\nSaan usein s\u00e4hk\u00f6postia tieteellisesti koulutetuilta ihmisilt\u00e4, jotka etsiv\u00e4t yksinkertaista laskelmaa kasvihuonekaasup\u00e4\u00e4st\u00f6jen aiheuttamasta ilmaston muutoksesta. Mink\u00e4laisilla fysikaalisilla kaavoilla ja kaasujen tiedoilla ennustetaan l\u00e4mp\u00f6tilan tulevaa nousua. Kysymys on luonteva, kun otetaan huomioon kun julkiset kasvihuoneilmi\u00f6n luonnehdinnat usein esitt\u00e4v\u00e4t sen yksinkertaisena fysikaalisena asiana. N\u00e4m\u00e4 ihmiset, jotka useimmiten ovat vanhempia insin\u00f6\u00f6rej\u00e4, tulevat ep\u00e4luuloisiksi kun asiantuntijat tuntuvat v\u00e4lttelev\u00e4n heid\u00e4n kysymyksi\u00e4\u00e4n. Jotkut yritt\u00e4v\u00e4t selvitt\u00e4\u00e4 omin p\u00e4in vastaukset (esimerkiksi  <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2008\/07\/once-more-unto-the-bray\/\">Lord Monckton<\/a>) ja valittavat siit\u00e4, miten asiantuntijat hylk\u00e4\u00e4v\u00e4t heid\u00e4n kauniit p\u00e4\u00e4ttelyketjunsa.<\/p>\n<p>Insin\u00f6\u00f6rien vaatimus siit\u00e4, ett\u00e4 uhkaava globaalimuutos todistettaisiin sivulla tai parilla kaavoja, kuulostaa j\u00e4rkev\u00e4lt\u00e4, ja n\u00e4ill\u00e4 vaatimuksilla on pitk\u00e4 historia. Historia paljastaa miten ilmastoj\u00e4rjestelm\u00e4n luonne v\u00e4ist\u00e4m\u00e4tt\u00e4 pett\u00e4\u00e4 yksinkertaisista vastauksista pit\u00e4v\u00e4t.<br \/>\nYksinkertaisin tapa laskea Maan pintal\u00e4mp\u00f6tila olisi k\u00e4sitt\u00e4\u00e4 ilmakeh\u00e4 yhten\u00e4, yhten\u00e4isen\u00e4 kappaleena, kuten lasilevyn\u00e4 jota kannatellaan pinnan yl\u00e4puolella (kuten \u201ckasvihuoneilmi\u00f6n\u201d   <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2007\/04\/learning-from-a-simple-model\/\">yksinkertaisimmassa esityksess\u00e4<\/a>). Mutta t\u00e4m\u00e4 l\u00e4hestymistapa ei anna globaalille l\u00e4mpenemiselle l\u00e4hellek\u00e4\u00e4n uskottavaa selityst\u00e4. On mahdotonta tehd\u00e4 laskelmia keskiarvon perusteella, joka syntyy ly\u00f6m\u00e4ll\u00e4 yhteen l\u00e4mp\u00f6s\u00e4teilyn k\u00e4ytt\u00e4ytyminen tihe\u00e4ss\u00e4, l\u00e4mpim\u00e4ss\u00e4 ja kosteassa ala-ilmakeh\u00e4ss\u00e4 siihen, miten se k\u00e4ytt\u00e4ytyy ohuessa, viile\u00e4ss\u00e4 ja kuivassa yl\u00e4ilmakeh\u00e4ss\u00e4. Jo 1800-luvulla fyysikot k\u00e4yttiv\u00e4t \u201cyksiulotteista mallia\u201d. He olettivat ilmakeh\u00e4n olevan samanlainen joka puolella planeettaa, ja tutkivat sit\u00e4 miten s\u00e4teily siirtyy tai absorboituu kun se kulkeutuu yl\u00f6s tai alasp\u00e4in kuvitellussa ilmapilarissa, joka ylettyy maan tasolta ilmakeh\u00e4n yl\u00e4osiin asti. T\u00e4t\u00e4 kutsutaan \u201cs\u00e4teilysiirtym\u00e4ksi\u201d, ja se on elegantti ja vaikea teoria. Siin\u00e4 pyrit\u00e4\u00e4n selvitt\u00e4m\u00e4\u00e4n sit\u00e4 miten auringonvalo l\u00e4p\u00e4isee kaikki ilmakeh\u00e4n kerrokset tullessaan maanpinnalle, ja miten maanpinnalta takaisin yl\u00f6s siirtyv\u00e4 l\u00e4mp\u00f6energia l\u00e4mmtt\u00e4\u00e4 jokaista kerrosta, kimpoillen edes takaisin kerrosten v\u00e4lill\u00e4 tai karaten avaruuteen.<\/p>\n<p>Kun opiskelijat oppivat fysiikkaa, heille opetetaan monia yksinkertaisia j\u00e4rjestelmi\u00e4 jotka tottelevat muutamaa luonnonlakia, ja tarjoavat ihanan t\u00e4ydellisi\u00e4 vastauksia: sivu tai pari kaavoja, ja valmista tuli. Opettajat harvemmin kertovat ett\u00e4 n\u00e4m\u00e4 j\u00e4rjestelm\u00e4t on poimittu paljon suuremmasta j\u00e4rjestelmien joukosta, jotka eiv\u00e4t melkein koskaan ole n\u00e4in helposti palautettavissa laskelmiin. Yksiulotteista ilmakeh\u00e4mallia ei voida ratkaista sivullisella matematiikkaa. Ilmapilari t\u00e4ytyy jakaa tasoihin, ja laskea kyn\u00e4ll\u00e4 tai tietokoneella erikseen mit\u00e4 jokaisella tasolla tapahtuu. Mik\u00e4 pahinta, hiilidioksidi ja vesih\u00f6yry (kaksi p\u00e4\u00e4asiallista kasvihuonekaasua) absorboivat ja sirovat eri tavoilla eri aallonpituuksilla. Samat, pitk\u00e4t laskelmaketjut t\u00e4ytyy siis tehd\u00e4 toistuvasti, erikseen jokaiselle s\u00e4teilyspektrin osalle.<br \/>\nVasta 1950-luvulla tieteentekij\u00f6ill\u00e4 oli sek\u00e4 asianmukaista dataa infrapunas\u00e4teilyn absorptiosta ett\u00e4 digitaalisia laskentav\u00e4lineit\u00e4, joilla saatettiin k\u00e4sitell\u00e4 valtavia laskum\u00e4\u00e4ri\u00e4. Gilbert N. Plass k\u00e4ytti dataa ja laskukoneita osoittaakseen, ett\u00e4 hiilidioksidin lis\u00e4\u00e4minen ilmapilariin  <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2007\/06\/a-saturated-gassy-argument\/\">nostaisi pintal\u00e4mp\u00f6tilaa<\/a>. Kukaan ei vaan uskonut h\u00e4nen laskemaansa tarkkaa arvoa (2,5\u00baC nousu CO2:n m\u00e4\u00e4r\u00e4n tuplautuessa). Kriitikot osoittivat Plassin j\u00e4tt\u00e4neen huomiotta monia t\u00e4rkeit\u00e4 tapahtumia. Ensinn\u00e4kin, jos globaali l\u00e4mp\u00f6tila alkaisi nousta, ilmakeh\u00e4 pystyisi sis\u00e4lt\u00e4m\u00e4\u00e4n enemm\u00e4n vesih\u00f6yry\u00e4. Sen oma kasvihuonevaikutus lis\u00e4isi l\u00e4mpenemist\u00e4 entisest\u00e4\u00e4n. Toisaalta, he v\u00e4ittiv\u00e4t, enemm\u00e4n vesih\u00f6yry\u00e4 ilmakeh\u00e4ss\u00e4 tarkoittaisi my\u00f6s enemm\u00e4n pilvi\u00e4, jotka viilent\u00e4isiv\u00e4t planeettaa ja hidastaisivat l\u00e4mpenemist\u00e4. Plass tai kukaan muukaan h\u00e4nt\u00e4 ennen ei ollut yritt\u00e4nyt lis\u00e4t\u00e4 pilvisyyden vaihtelua mukaan laskelmiin. (Yksityiskohtia ja lis\u00e4tietoja t\u00e4ll\u00e4  <a href=\"http:\/\/www.aip.org\/history\/climate\/Radmath.htm\">sivustolla<\/a>.)<\/p>\n<p>Fritz M\u00f6ller oli seuraava pioneeri, h\u00e4n suoritti laskelmia, jotka ottivat huomioon l\u00e4mp\u00f6tilan kasvun aiheuttaman absoluuttisen kosteuden nousun. Hups&#8230; h\u00e4nen laskelmansa osoittivat valtavan takaisinkytkent\u00e4j\u00e4rjestelm\u00e4n. Kun kosteus nousisi, vesih\u00f6yry lis\u00e4isi kasvihuoneilmi\u00f6t\u00e4, ja l\u00e4mp\u00f6tila nousisi huikeisiin lukemiin! T\u00e4m\u00e4 outo tulos sai Syokuro Manaben kehitt\u00e4m\u00e4\u00e4n realistisemman yksiulotteisen mallin. H\u00e4n lis\u00e4si ilmapilariin mekanismin, jolla yl\u00f6sp\u00e4in suuntautuvat konvektiovirtaukset siirt\u00e4v\u00e4t l\u00e4mp\u00f6\u00e4 pois pinnan tasolta. T\u00e4m\u00e4 on yksinkertainen prosessi, jonka l\u00e4hes kaikki aiemmat laskelmat olivat j\u00e4tt\u00e4neet huomioimatta. Ei ollut mik\u00e4\u00e4n ihme, ett\u00e4 M\u00f6llerin laskelmissa maan pinta oli l\u00e4mmennyt rajattomasti: h\u00e4nen mallissaan ei ollut otettu huomioon sit\u00e4 tosiasiaa, ett\u00e4 l\u00e4mmin ilma nousee yl\u00f6sp\u00e4in. Manabe my\u00f6s loi karkean laskelman pilvien vaikutuksista. Vuoteen 1967 menness\u00e4 h\u00e4n saattoi yhdess\u00e4 Richard Wetherhaldin kanssa todeta mit\u00e4 lis\u00e4\u00e4ntyv\u00e4st\u00e4 hiilidioksidista seuraisi. <a href=\"http:\/\/ams.allenpress.com\/amsonline\/?request=get-document&#038;issn=1520-0469&#038;volume=024&#038;page=241\">Heid\u00e4n<\/a> mallinsa ennusti ett\u00e4 jos CO2 -m\u00e4\u00e4r\u00e4 kaksinkertaistuisi, globaali l\u00e4mp\u00f6tila nousisi karkeasti arvioiden kaksi astetta Celsiusta. T\u00e4m\u00e4 oli luultavasti ensimm\u00e4inen tutkimus, joka vakuutti monet tieteentekij\u00e4t siit\u00e4, ett\u00e4 kasvihuoneilmi\u00f6 olisi otettava vakavasti. Laskelma oli niinsanotusti \u201cperiaatteellinen todiste.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Manabe-Wetherhaldin paperin n\u00e4ytt\u00e4minen vanhemmalle insin\u00f6\u00f6rille, joka vaatii todisteita siit\u00e4, ett\u00e4 globaalil\u00e4mpeneminen on ongelma, ei kuitenkaan tekisi teht\u00e4v\u00e4\u00e4ns\u00e4. Tutkimus antaa vain luonnostelman siit\u00e4 miten monimutkaisia ja pitki\u00e4 laskelmia tavallaan tapahtuu taustalla. Eik\u00e4 kukaan ottanut tutkimuksen ennusteita t\u00e4ydellisin\u00e4 ennusteina silloin eik\u00e4 t\u00e4n\u00e4k\u00e4\u00e4n p\u00e4iv\u00e4n\u00e4. Mallissa ei viel\u00e4k\u00e4\u00e4n otettu huomioon monia t\u00e4rkeit\u00e4 tekij\u00f6it\u00e4. Esimerkiksi vasta 1970-luvulla tieteentekij\u00e4t huomasivat ett\u00e4 heid\u00e4n tulisi ottaa laskelmissa huomioon my\u00f6s savun, p\u00f6lyjen ja muiden ihmisen tuottamien aerosolien vaikutus s\u00e4teilyyn ja pilvien muodostumiseen, ja niin edelleen&#8230;<\/p>\n<p>Kasvihuoneilmi\u00f6 ei ollut ensimm\u00e4inen kerta kun klimatologia t\u00f6rm\u00e4si t\u00e4h\u00e4n sein\u00e4\u00e4n. Otetaan esimerkiksi yrityksi\u00e4 laskea pasaatituulien, t\u00e4rke\u00e4n ja yksinkertaisen ilmastoilmi\u00f6n, olemusta. Sukupolvien ajan teoreetikot yrittiv\u00e4t laskea peruskaavoja, joilla laskea fluidivirtauksia ja l\u00e4mp\u00f6siirtym\u00e4\u00e4 py\u00f6riv\u00e4n pallon pinnalla, ja siten tuottaa tarkan selvityksen planeettamme konvektiosolujen ja -tuulien rakennelmasta, parilla rivill\u00e4&#8230; tai sivulla&#8230; tai parilla kymmenell\u00e4 sivulla. Yritykset aina ep\u00e4onnistuivat. Vasta laskentakykyisten digitaalisten tietokoneiden yleistyminen 1960-luvulla antoi mahdollisuuden ratkaista t\u00e4m\u00e4n ongelman suorittamalla miljoonia numeerisia laskutoimituksia. Jos joku pyyt\u00e4isi \u201cselityksen\u201d pasaatituulista, viittoisimme ilmaa ja puhuisimme trooppisesta l\u00e4mpenemisest\u00e4, maan py\u00f6rimisliikkeest\u00e4 ja barokliinisesta ep\u00e4stabiiliudesta. Mutta jos meilt\u00e4 vaaditaan yksityiskohtaisia, numeerisia todistuksia, voimme helposti kaataa eteen kuorma-autollisen tulosteita, joista kaikki aritmeettiset laskutoimitukset k\u00e4yv\u00e4t ilmi.<\/p>\n<p>En v\u00e4it\u00e4 ett\u00e4 emme ymm\u00e4rr\u00e4 kasvihuoneilmi\u00f6t\u00e4. Ymm\u00e4rr\u00e4mme sen perusfysiikan oikein hyvin, ja voimme selitt\u00e4\u00e4 sen hetkess\u00e4 uteliaalle maallikolle. (Esimerkiksi n\u00e4in: kasvihuonekaasut p\u00e4\u00e4st\u00e4v\u00e4t auringonvaloa l\u00e4pi Maan pinnalle, joka l\u00e4mpenee; pinta sitten l\u00e4hett\u00e4\u00e4 infrapunas\u00e4teily\u00e4 takaisin yl\u00f6s, joka absorboituu kaasuihin eri tasoilla ja l\u00e4mmitt\u00e4\u00e4 ilmaa; ilma s\u00e4teilee osan t\u00e4st\u00e4 energiasta takaisin pinnalle, pit\u00e4en sen l\u00e4mpim\u00e4mp\u00e4n\u00e4 kuin mit\u00e4 se olisi ilman n\u00e4it\u00e4 kaasuja.) Tieteentekij\u00e4lle voimme antaa  <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2007\/08\/the-co2-problem-in-6-easy-steps\/\">teknisen selvityksen parilla kappaleella<\/a>. Mutta jos halutaan t\u00e4ydellinen selvitys selkein\u00e4 numeroina \u2013 jos halutaan tiet\u00e4\u00e4 aiheuttaako kasvihuonekaasujen pitoisuuksien lis\u00e4\u00e4ntyminen mit\u00e4tt\u00f6m\u00e4n l\u00e4mpenemisen vai katastrofin \u2013 t\u00e4ytyy ottaa laskelmiin mukaan kosteus, konvektiovirtaukset, aerosolit ja kasa muita ilmastoj\u00e4rjestelm\u00e4n osia, kaikki yhdess\u00e4 pitk\u00e4ss\u00e4 tietokoneajossa.<\/p>\n<p>Fysiikka on t\u00e4ynn\u00e4 ilmi\u00f6it\u00e4 jotka ovat p\u00e4\u00e4lt\u00e4 katsoen yksinkertaisia, mutta joita ei voida laskea yksinkertaisilla keinoilla. Globaalil\u00e4mpeneminen on t\u00e4llainen ilmi\u00f6. Ihmiset voivat vaatia lyhytt\u00e4, selke\u00e4\u00e4 esityst\u00e4 siit\u00e4 miten paljon l\u00e4mpenemist\u00e4 tulemme kokemaan. Ik\u00e4v\u00e4 kyll\u00e4 sellaista yksinkertaista laskelmaa ei ole olemassa. Todellinen l\u00e4mp\u00f6tilan nousu on kehittyv\u00e4 tulos, joka syntyy satojen tekij\u00f6iden yhteisvaikutuksena. Ihmisten, jotka eiv\u00e4t suostu hyv\u00e4ksym\u00e4\u00e4n t\u00e4t\u00e4 monimutkaisuutta, ei tulisi yll\u00e4tty\u00e4 kun heid\u00e4n vaatimuksiaan yksinkertaisesta laskelmasta ei voida toteuttaa.<br \/>\n<\/lang_fi><\/p>\n<!-- kcite active, but no citations found -->\n<\/div> <!-- kcite-section 595 -->","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Guest commentary by Spencer R. Weart, American Institute of Physics I often get emails from scientifically trained people who are looking for a straightforward calculation of the global warming that greenhouse gas emissions will bring. What are the physics equations and data on gases that predict just how far the temperature will rise? A natural [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":12,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_exactmetrics_skip_tracking":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_active":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_note":"","_exactmetrics_sitenote_category":0,"_genesis_hide_title":false,"_genesis_hide_breadcrumbs":false,"_genesis_hide_singular_image":false,"_genesis_hide_footer_widgets":false,"_genesis_custom_body_class":"","_genesis_custom_post_class":"","_genesis_layout":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[1,3],"tags":[],"class_list":{"0":"post-595","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","6":"category-climate-science","7":"category-greenhouse-gases","8":"entry"},"aioseo_notices":[],"post_mailing_queue_ids":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/595","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/12"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=595"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/595\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=595"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=595"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=595"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}