{"id":74,"date":"2004-12-13T22:09:19","date_gmt":"2004-12-14T02:09:19","guid":{"rendered":"\/?p=74"},"modified":"2011-07-11T22:49:26","modified_gmt":"2011-07-12T03:49:26","slug":"michael-crichtons-state-of-confusion","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/archives\/2004\/12\/michael-crichtons-state-of-confusion\/","title":{"rendered":"Michael Crichton&#8217;s State of Confusion <lang_fr>L&#8217;\u00e9tat de confusion de Michael Crichton<\/lang_fr>"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"kcite-section\" kcite-section-id=\"74\">\n<p>In a departure from normal practice on this site, this post is a commentary on a piece of out-and-out fiction (unlike most of the other posts which deal with a more subtle kind).  Michael Crichton&#8217;s new novel <a href=\"http:\/\/www.crichton-official.com\/fear\/\">&#8220;State of Fear&#8221;<\/a> is about a self-important NGO hyping the science of the global warming to further the ends of evil eco-terrorists. The inevitable conclusion of the book is that global warming is a non-problem. A lesson for our times maybe? Unfortunately, I think not.<br \/>\n<lang_fr><br \/>\n<em>par Gavin Schmidt (traduit par Alain Henry)<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Ce message s&#8217;\u00e9carte des pratiques habituelles de ce site pour commenter une pi\u00e8ce de pure fiction (au contraire des autres messages qui abordent le sujet sous un angle plus subtil).  Le nouveau roman de Michael Crichton, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.crichton-official.com\/fear\/\">\u00ab Etat d&#8217;urgence \u00bb<\/a> raconte comment une ONG encourage la recherche scientifique sur le r\u00e9chauffement global pour servir les objectifs de m\u00e9chants \u00e9co-terroristes.  Le roman nous am\u00e8ne in\u00e9vitablement \u00e0 la conclusion que le r\u00e9chauffement global est un faux probl\u00e8me.  Une le\u00e7on pour notre \u00e9poque?  Malheureusement, je ne le pense pas.<a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php?p=74\"><br \/>\n(suite&#8230;.)<\/a><br \/>\n<\/lang_fr><br \/>\n<!--more--><\/p>\n<p>Like the recent movie &#8220;The Day After Tomorrow&#8221;, the novel addresses real scientific issues and controversies, but is similarly selective (and occasionally mistaken) about the basic science.  I will discuss a selection of the global warming-related issues that are raised in between the car chases, shoot-outs, cannibalistic rites and assorted derring-do. The champion of Crichton&#8217;s scientific view is a MIT academic-turned-undercover operative who clearly runs intellectual rings around other characters. The issues are raised as conversations and Q and A sessions between him (and other &#8216;good guys&#8217;) and two characters; an actor (not a very clever chap) and a lawyer (a previously duped innocent), neither of whom know much about the science. <\/p>\n<p>So for actors and lawyers everywhere, I will try and help out. <\/p>\n<p>The issues Crichton raises are familiar to those of us in the field, and come up often in discussions. Some are real and well appreciated while some are red herrings and are used to confuse rather than enlighten.<\/p>\n<p>The first set of comments relate to the attribution of the recent warming trend to increasing CO<sub>2<\/sub>. One character suggests that  &#8220;if CO<sub>2<\/sub> didn&#8217;t cause the global cooling between 1940 and 1970, how can you be sure it is responsible for the recent warming?&#8221; (paraphrased from p86) . Northern Hemisphere mean temperatures do appear to have cooled over that period, and that contrasts with a continuing increase in CO<sub>2<\/sub>, which if all else had been equal, should have led to warming.  But were all things equal? Actually no. In the real world, there is both internal variability and other factors that affect climate (i.e. other than CO<sub>2<\/sub>).  Some of those other <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php?p=4\">forcings<\/a> (sulphate and nitrate aerosols, land use changes, solar irradiance, volcanic aerosols, for instance) can cause cooling. Matching up the real world with what we might expect to have happened depends on including ALL of the forcings (as best as we can). Even then any discrepancy might be due to internal variability (related principally to the ocean on multi-decadal time scales). Our current &#8216;best guess&#8217; is that the global mean changes in temperature (including the 1940-1970 cooling) are actually quite closely related to the forcings. Regional patterns of change appear to be linked more closely to internal variability (particularly the 1930&#8217;s warming in the North Atlantic).  However, in no case has anyone managed to show that the recent warming can be matched without the increases in CO<sub>2<\/sub> (and other GHGs like CH<sub>4<\/sub>). <\/p>\n<p>Secondly, through the copious use of station weather data, a number of single station records with long term cooling trends are shown. In particular,  the characters visit Punta Arenas (at the tip of South America), where (very pleasingly to my host institution) they have the <a href=\"http:\/\/data.giss.nasa.gov\/gistemp\/\">GISTEMP<\/a> station record posted on the wall which shows a long-term cooling trend (although slight warming since the 1970&#8217;s). &#8220;There&#8217;s your global warming&#8221; one of the good guys declares. I have to disagree. Global warming is defined by the global mean surface temperature. It does not imply that the whole globe is warming uniformly (which of course it isn&#8217;t).  (But that doesn&#8217;t stop one character later on (p381) declaring that &#8220;..it&#8217;s effect is presumably the same everywhere in the world. That&#8217;s why it&#8217;s called global warming&#8221;). Had the characters visited the nearby station of Santa <strike>Barbara<\/strike> Cruz Aeropuerto, the poster on the wall would have shown a positive trend. Would that have been proof of global warming? No. Only by amalgamating all of the records we have (after correcting for known problems, such as discussed below) can we have an idea what the regional, hemispheric or global means are doing. That is what is meant by global warming.<\/p>\n<p>Crichton next raises the apparently unrecognised (by the lawyer character at least) fact that the interior of Antarctica is cooling (p196), an issue discussed in another post (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php?p=18\">Antarctica cooling, global warming?<\/a>). This is more or less correct  (given the obvious uncertainties in long term data from the continental interior), but analogously to the example above, local cooling does not contradict global warming.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" data-src=\"http:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/52\/Hansen_GW_projection_1988.gif\" align=right src=\"data:image\/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB3aWR0aD0iMSIgaGVpZ2h0PSIxIiB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciPjwvc3ZnPg==\" class=\"lazyload\"> Next, and slightly more troubling, we have some rather misleading and selective recollection regarding Jim Hansen&#8217;s testimony to congress in 1988. &#8220;Dr. Hansen overestimated [global warming] by 300 percent&#8221;  (p247). Hansen&#8217;s testimony did indeed lead to a big increase in awareness of global warming as a issue, but not because he exaggerated the problem by 300%. In a paper published soon after that testimony, <a href=\"http:\/\/pubs.giss.nasa.gov\/abstracts\/1988\/Hansen_etal.html\">Hansen et al, 1988<\/a> presented three model simulations for different scenarios for the growth in trace gases and other forcings (see figure). Scenario A had exponentially increasing CO<sub>2<\/sub>, Scenario B had a more modest Business-as-usual assumption, and Scenario C had no further increases in CO<sub>2<\/sub> after the year 2000. Both scenarios B and C assumed a large volcanic eruption in 1995. Rightly, the authors did not assume that they knew what path the carbon dioxide emissions would take, and so presented a spectrum of results. The scenario that ended up being closest to the real path of forcings growth was scenario B, with the difference that Mt. Pinatubo erupted in 1991, not 1995. The temperature change for the decade under this scenario was very close to the actual 0.11 C\/decade observed (as can be seen  in the figure).  So given a good estimate of the forcings, the model did a reasonable job. In fact in his testimony, Hansen ONLY showed results from scenario B, and stated clearly that it was the most probable scenario. The &#8216;300 percent&#8217; error claim comes from noted climate skeptic Patrick Michaels who in testimony in congress in 1998 <a href=\"http:\/\/www.cato.org\/testimony\/images\/pm072998a.gif\"> deleted the bottom two curves<\/a>  in order to give the impression that the models were unreliable.<\/p>\n<p>Dr Hansen is further quoted (a little out-of-context) saying: &#8220;The forcings that drive long term climate change are not known with an accuracy sufficient to define future climate change&#8221;. Given the discussion above it is clear that without good estimates of the actual forcings, the differences in the model projections can be large. It is widely accepted that exact <em>prediction<\/em> of what will happen to climate in 50 or 100 years is impossible. Much of the future is of course unknowable. A new energy source could replace fossil fuels, governments could control emissions, or maybe a series of huge volcanoes will erupt. Therefore it is much more sensible to ask, what would climate be like if you doubled CO<sub>2<\/sub>? or if this or that scenario occurred. These are much better defined questions. Hansen&#8217;s quote is often taken to imply that models are so unreliable they are useless in helping assess the issue. In fact it is the opposite &#8211;   Hansen is actually claiming that the uncertainty in models (for instance, in the climate sensitivity) is now less than the uncertainty in the emissions scenarios (i.e. it is the uncertainty in the <em>forcings<\/em>, that drives the uncertainty in the projections).  <\/p>\n<p>Continuing to p315, it is claimed that &#8220;in the 1970&#8217;s all the climate scientists believed an ice age was coming&#8221; (and, as described on p563, the MIT academic apparently still thinks so). However, this is not an accurate statement and William Connolley&#8217;s <a href=\"http:\/\/www.wmconnolley.org.uk\/sci\/iceage\/\">pages on the subject<\/a> are an illuminating read for those wanting more details.<\/p>\n<p>Another issue that often comes up in discussion about the surface temperature record is the impact of the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php?p=44\">Urban Heat Island Effect <\/a>(UHIE), and here it appears on p370. It is undisputed that the centres of cities such as New York are significantly warmer than the surrounding countryside. This issue has been extensively studied and is corrected for in all analyses of the <a href=\"http:\/\/pubs.giss.nasa.gov\/abstracts\/2001\/HansenRuedyS.html\">global temperature trends<\/a>. To see whether there might still be a residual effect in the corrected data, a recent paper <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/cgi-taf\/DynaPage.taf?file=\/nature\/journal\/v432\/n7015\/full\/432290a_r.html&#038;filetype=&#038;dynoptions=\">(Parker, Nature, 2004)<\/a>  looked at the differences in the trends if you looked separately at windy and not-so-windy conditions. Wind is known to diminish the impact of urban heating, and so the trends on windy days should be less than trends on still days if this was important. The trends actually end up almost exactly the same. Other validating data for the corrected surface temperature record comes from the oceans, which have also been warming in recent decades. Even <a href=\"http:\/\/www-eaps.mit.edu\/faculty\/lindzen.htm\"> Richard Lindzen <\/a> , normally an arch-skeptic on these issues, stated that &#8220;ocean temperature increases present some support for the surface temperature record&#8221; <a href=\"http:\/\/eaps.mit.edu\/faculty\/lindzen\/204_2001GL014360.pdf\">Lindzen (2002)<\/a>. Another demonstration that the corrections are sufficient is that over the continental US, where many cities have a clear urban heating signal, the mean of the corrected data is actually rather flat (p88) &#8211; i.e. none of the strong urban biases in the US has made it into the regional or indeed global mean.<\/p>\n<p>A central issue in the book concerns sea-level rise. Vanuatu is singled out for special attention since the islanders there are understandably concerned about their low-lying islands eventually being swamped.  Sea level however is a surprisingly difficult thing to measure. Tide gauges are very noisy, and are usually located on the continental coast.  Global trends in sea level from these gauges are between  1.7 to 2.4 mm\/yr. Sea level though is not rising everywhere. In Scandinavia the continents are still rebounding from the ice age and local sea level is receding. Satellite data (TOPEX\/POSEIDON and JASON) can give a global picture, and indicate that although the global mean rise over recent years (<a href=\"http:\/\/sealevel.colorado.edu\/\">2.8 mm\/yr<\/a>) is significantly larger than the longer term trend estimated from tide gauges, sea level change is actually very dynamic. There are many patterns of behaviour particularly in the Pacific, associated with El Nino variability &#8211; possibly related to Vanuatu&#8217;s lack of actual sea level rise over the last 40 years. Curiously, Crichton cites the higher satellite derived number to claim that the rate of sea level rise has not increased recently (&#8220;[Sea level is] rising faster, Satellites prove it&#8221;,&#8221;Actually they don&#8217;t&#8221;), p424. There are clearly some problems in comparing tide gauge and satellite data, and of course, satellites can have their problems (cf. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php?p=61\">MSU data<\/a>), but the quoted numbers don&#8217;t support the actual statement at all &#8211; though it would be fairer to say that the satellites are consistent with a recent rise in the rate, rather than a proof that it is occurring.  <\/p>\n<p>There are only a few out-and-out errors, but to be generous, they probably just slipped through the editing process. For instance, on p187 &#8220;higher temperature means more water vapor in the air and therefore fewer clouds&#8221; &#8211; Presumably, he meant that if the temperature is higher, the relatively humidity could be lower (and so there might be less clouds). On p368. &#8220;Croplands are warmer than forested lands&#8221;. This is probably a confusion with the urban heating issue, but the actual impact is the opposite &#8211; croplands have a higher albedo than forests, reflect more solar radiation, and are thus cooler. In fact, while this is not yet fully quantified, it appears to have been a significant cooling term in the global budget over the last 150 years. On p461 &#8220;&#8230;Greenland shows that, in the last hundred thousand years, there have been four abrupt climate change events&#8221; More like 40. And that is probably an undercount given that Greenland may not record events in the tropics.<\/p>\n<p>At the end of the book, Crichton gives us an author&#8217;s message. In it, he re-iterates the main points of his thesis, that there are some who go too far to drum up support (and I have some sympathy with this), and that because we don&#8217;t know everything, we actually know nothing (here, I beg to differ). He also gives us his estimate, ~0.8 C for the global warming that will occur over the next century and claims that, since models differ by 400% in their estimates, his guess is as good as theirs. This is not true. The current batch of models have a mean climate sensitivity of about 3 C to doubled CO<sub>2<\/sub> (and range between 2.5 and 4.0 degrees)  (Paris meeting of IPCC, July 2004) , i.e  an uncertainty of about 30%.  As discussed above, the biggest uncertainties about the future are the economics, technology and rate of development going forward.  The main cause of the spread in the widely quoted 1.5 to 5.8 C range of temperature projections for 2100 in IPCC is actually the different scenarios used.  For lack of better information, if we (incorrectly) assume all the scenarios  are equally probable, the error around the mean of 3.6 degrees is about 60%, not 400%.  Crichton also suggests that most of his 0.8 C warming will be due to land use changes.  That is actually extremely unlikely since land use change globally is a cooling effect (as discussed above). Physically-based simulations <em>are<\/em> actually better than just guessing.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, in an appendix, Crichton uses a rather curious train of logic to compare global warming to the 19th Century eugenics movement. He argues, that since eugenics was studied in prestigious universities and supported by charitable foundations, and now, so is global warming, they must somehow be related. Presumably, the author doesn&#8217;t actually believe that foundation-supported academic research <em>ipso facto<\/em> is evil and mis-guided, but that is an impression that is left.<\/p>\n<p>In summary, I am a little disappointed, not least because while researching this book, Crichton actually visited our lab and discussed some of these issues with me and a few of my colleagues. I guess we didn&#8217;t do a very good job. Judging from his reading list, the rather dry prose of the IPCC reports did not match up to the some of the racier contrarian texts. Had <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\" title=\"shameless plug\">RealClimate<\/a> been up and running a few years back, maybe it would&#8217;ve all worked out differently&#8230;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Update:<\/strong> Due to popular demand here is an updated version of the figure that was originally made in 1998. Apologies for my lack of photoshop skills. <\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" data-src=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/images\/00fig1.gif\" align=bottom src=\"data:image\/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB3aWR0aD0iMSIgaGVpZ2h0PSIxIiB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciPjwvc3ZnPg==\" class=\"lazyload\"><\/p>\n<p><strong>Update 02\/16\/05:<\/strong> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.boston.com\/news\/globe\/ideas\/articles\/2005\/02\/06\/checking_crichtons_footnotes\/\">Chris Mooney<\/a> also does a good job at checking some of the footnotes in Crichton&#8217;s book. <\/p>\n<p><lang_fr>Comme le film r\u00e9cent \u00ab Le jour d&#8217;apr\u00e8s \u00bb, ce roman aborde des sujets et controverses scientifiques r\u00e9els, mais il est \u00e9galement s\u00e9lectif (et parfois erron\u00e9) quand il s&#8217;agit des faits scientifiques de base.  Je voudrais discuter une s\u00e9lection des th\u00e8mes li\u00e9s au r\u00e9chauffement global qui sont abord\u00e9s entre les poursuites, les fusillades, les rites cannibales et autres prouesses.  Le h\u00e9ros scientifique de Crichton est un professeur du MIT (Massachussetts Institute of Technology) devenu agent secret, qui \u00e9tend ses tentacules intellectuels autour des autres personnages.  Les sujets scientifiques sont abord\u00e9s au cours de conversations et de s\u00e9ances de questions-r\u00e9ponses entre lui (et d&#8217;autres \u00ab bons \u00bb) et 2 autres personnages, un acteur (un type pas tr\u00e8s brillant) et un avocat (un innocent dup\u00e9), dont les connaissances scientifiques sont plut\u00f4t limit\u00e9es.  <\/p>\n<p>Donc, pour tous les acteurs et les avocats de par le monde, voici quelques \u00e9claircissements.  <\/p>\n<p>Le sujets abord\u00e9s par Crichton sont familiers \u00e0 ceux qui travaillent dans ce domaine [les changements climatiques] et reviennent souvent dans les discussions.  Certains sont r\u00e9els et \u00e9valu\u00e9s correctement, tandis que d&#8217;autres ne sont que des diversions utilis\u00e9es pour semer la confusion plut\u00f4t que pour \u00e9clairer.<br \/>\nLes premiers commentaires abordent la question de l&#8217;attribution de la tendance r\u00e9cente au r\u00e9chauffement \u00e0 l&#8217;augmentation du CO2.  Un personnage sugg\u00e8re: \u00ab Si le CO2 n&#8217;a pas caus\u00e9 le refroidissement global entre 1940 et 1970, comment pouvez-vous \u00eatre s\u00fbr qu&#8217;il soit responsable du r\u00e9chauffement r\u00e9cent? \u00bb (paraphras\u00e9 de la page. 86 \u2013 NdT: l&#8217;\u00e9dition fran\u00e7aise \u00e9tant pr\u00e9vue pour 2006, les num\u00e9ros de page se r\u00e9f\u00e8rent \u00e0 l&#8217;\u00e9dition anglaise.)  Les temp\u00e9ratures moyennes de l&#8217;h\u00e9misph\u00e8re Nord ont effectivement baiss\u00e9 sur cette p\u00e9riode, alors que les concentrations de CO2 continuaient \u00e0 augmenter.  Si les autres conditions \u00e9taient rest\u00e9es semblables, c&#8217;est un r\u00e9chauffement qu&#8217;on aurait du observer.  Mais sont-elles rest\u00e9es semblables?  En fait, non.  En r\u00e9alit\u00e9, le climat peut \u00eatre influenc\u00e9 \u00e0 la fois par sa variabilit\u00e9 interne comme par des causes externes (c-\u00e0-d autres que le CO2).  D&#8217;autres \u00ab <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php?p=4\">for\u00e7ages<\/a> \u00bb peuvent causer un refroidissement (par exemple les a\u00e9rosols \u00e0 base de sulfates et de nitrates, des changements dans l&#8217;utilisation des sols, l&#8217;irradiation solaire ou les a\u00e9rosols volcaniques).  Pour faire correspondre notre \u00e9valuation de ce aurait du arriver avec la r\u00e9alit\u00e9, il faut inclure TOUS les for\u00e7ages (du mieux que nous pouvons).  M\u00eame dans ce cas, une diff\u00e9rence peut \u00eatre caus\u00e9e par une variabilit\u00e9 interne (principalement li\u00e9es aux oc\u00e9ans, \u00e0 l&#8217;\u00e9chelle de plusieurs d\u00e9cennies).  Dans les meilleures estimations actuelles, les changements globaux de temp\u00e9rature moyenne (y compris la p\u00e9riode 1940-1970) correspondent de tr\u00e8s pr\u00e8s \u00e0 l&#8217;effet combin\u00e9s des for\u00e7ages.  Les impacts r\u00e9gionaux semblent \u00eatre beaucoup plus li\u00e9s \u00e0 la variabilit\u00e9 interne (en particulier le r\u00e9chauffement des ann\u00e9es 30 dans l&#8217;Atlantique Nord).  Toutefois, jamais personne n&#8217; a pu montr\u00e9 que le r\u00e9chauffement r\u00e9cent pouvait \u00eatre reproduit sans prendre en compte l&#8217;augmentation du CO2 (et des autres gaz \u00e0 effet de serre comme le m\u00e9thane).  <\/p>\n<p>Ensuite, en puisant abondamment dans les donn\u00e9es de stations m\u00e9t\u00e9o, l&#8217;auteur mentionne un certain nombre d&#8217;enregistrements provenant de  de stations particuli\u00e8res o\u00f9 la tendance de long terme est au refroidissement.  Ils visitent en particulier Punta Arenas (\u00e0 la pointe sud de l&#8217;Am\u00e9rique), o\u00f9 (au grand plaisir de l&#8217;institution o\u00f9 je travaille ) les enregistrements de la station GISTEMP affich\u00e9s au mur montrent une tendance de long terme au refroidissement (m\u00eame s&#8217;il y a un l\u00e9ger r\u00e9chauffement depuis 1970).  \u00ab Et voil\u00e0 votre r\u00e9chauffement global \u00bb d\u00e9clare un des h\u00e9ros.  Je ne peux pas \u00eatre d&#8217;accord avec ceci.  Le r\u00e9chauffement global est d\u00e9fini par la moyenne globale des temp\u00e9ratures de surface.  Cela ne signifie pas que tout le globe se r\u00e9chauffe uniform\u00e9ment (ce qui n&#8217;est \u00e9videmment pas le cas).  (Mais \u00e7a n&#8217;emp\u00eache pas un des personnage de d\u00e9clarer plus tard (page 381) : \u00ab Cet effet est probablement le m\u00eame partout dans le monde.  C&#8217;est pour \u00e7a qu&#8217;on l&#8217;appelle r\u00e9chauffement global \u00bb).  Si les personnages avaient visit\u00e9 la station toute proche de Santa <strike>Barbara<\/strike> Cruz Aeropuerto, le graphique affich\u00e9 aurait montr\u00e9 une tendance positive.  Est-ce que cela aurait \u00e9t\u00e9 une preuve r\u00e9chauffement global?  Non.  C&#8217;est seulement en amalgamant tous les enregistrements dont nous disposons (apr\u00e8s correction pour les probl\u00e8mes connus, comme discut\u00e9 ci-dessous) que nous pouvons nous faire une id\u00e9e de comment \u00e9voluent les moyennes r\u00e9gionales, h\u00e9misph\u00e9riques ou globales.  C&#8217;est cela, la signification de \u00ab r\u00e9chauffement global. \u00bb <\/p>\n<p>Crichton soul\u00e8ve ensuite le fait apparemment non reconnu (en tous cas par l&#8217;avocat) que l&#8217;int\u00e9rieur de l&#8217;antarctique se refroidit (page 196), un th\u00e8me discut\u00e9 dans un autre post (r<a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php?p=18\">efroidissement antarctique, r\u00e9chauffement global?<\/a>).  C&#8217;est plus ou moins correct, \u00e9tant donn\u00e9 les incertitudes \u00e9videntes dans les donn\u00e9es de long terme pour l&#8217;int\u00e9rieur du continent, mais, comme expliqu\u00e9 ci-dessus, un refroidissement local n&#8217;est pas contradictoire avec un r\u00e9chauffement global. <\/p>\n<p>Apr\u00e8s cela, et de fa\u00e7on un peu plus troublante, nous avons quelques rappels plut\u00f4t trompeurs et s\u00e9lectifs \u00e0 propos du t\u00e9moignage de Jim Hansen au Congr\u00e8s en 1988.  \u00ab Le Dr Hansen a surestim\u00e9 [le r\u00e9chauffement global] de 300% \u00bb (page 247).  Ce t\u00e9moignage conduisit effectivement \u00e0 une forte augmentation de la prise de conscience du fait que le r\u00e9chauffement global \u00e9tait un sujet important, mais pas parce qu&#8217;il exag\u00e9rait le probl\u00e8me de 300%.  Dans un article publi\u00e9 peu apr\u00e8s son t\u00e9moignage <a href=\"http:\/\/pubs.giss.nasa.gov\/abstracts\/1988\/Hansen_etal.html\">(Hansen et al. 1988)<\/a>, il pr\u00e9sente des simulations pour trois sc\u00e9narios de croissance des GES et des autres for\u00e7ages.  Le sc\u00e9nario A pr\u00e9sentait une croissance exponentielle du CO2, le sc\u00e9nario B contenait une hypoth\u00e8se plus modeste de sc\u00e9nario \u00e0 politique inchang\u00e9e (business as usual) et dans le sc\u00e9nario C, il n&#8217;y avait plus d&#8217;augmentation du CO2 apr\u00e8s l&#8217;an 2000.  Les sc\u00e9narios B et C incluaient tous les deux une grande \u00e9ruption volcanique en 1995.  Tr\u00e8s justement, les auteurs ne supposaient pas qu&#8217;ils savaient quelle serait la croissance des \u00e9missions de CO2.  Ils pr\u00e9sentaient donc plusieurs sc\u00e9narios.  Le sc\u00e9nario qui se trouve \u00eatre le plus proche de la croissance r\u00e9elle des for\u00e7ages est le sc\u00e9nario B, \u00e0 la diff\u00e9rence que l&#8217;\u00e9ruption du Pinatubo eut lieu en 1991 et non en 1995.  Dans ce sc\u00e9nario, les changements de temp\u00e9rature de la d\u00e9cennie sont tr\u00e8s proches de la valeur observ\u00e9e de 0,11\u00b0C\/d\u00e9cennie (voir figure).  Donc, \u00e0 partir d&#8217;une bonne estimation des for\u00e7ages, le mod\u00e8le fit un travail raisonnable.  En fait, dans son t\u00e9moignage, Hansen ne montra que les r\u00e9sultats du sc\u00e9nario B et d\u00e9clara clairement qu&#8217;il \u00e9tait le plus probable.  L&#8217;erreur de 300% vient du \u00ab sceptique \u00bb bien connu Patrick Michaels, qui dans son t\u00e9moignage au Congr\u00e8s de 1998 effa\u00e7a les deux courbes du bas pour donner l&#8217;impression que les mod\u00e8les ne sont pas fiables.  <\/p>\n<p>Le Dr Hansen est encore cit\u00e9 (un peu hors contexte) en disant : \u00ab Les for\u00e7ages qui d\u00e9terminent les changements climatiques de long terme ne sont pas connus avec assez de pr\u00e9cision pour d\u00e9finir les changements climatiques \u00e0 venir. \u00bb  Etant donn\u00e9 ce que nous venons de dire au paragraphe pr\u00e9c\u00e9dent, il est clair que sans une bonne estimation des for\u00e7ages, les diff\u00e9rences entre mod\u00e8les peuvent \u00eatre consid\u00e9rables.  Il est commun\u00e9ment accept\u00e9 qu&#8217;une pr\u00e9vision exacte de l&#8217;\u00e9volution du climat dans les 50 ou 100 prochaines ann\u00e9es est impossible.  Le futur est en grande partie inconnaissable.  Une nouvelle source d&#8217;\u00e9nergie pourrait remplacer les combustibles fossiles, les gouvernements pourraient contr\u00f4ler les \u00e9missions, ou nous pourrions avoir de nombreuses \u00e9ruptions volcaniques.  Il est donc beaucoup plus raisonnable de se demander ce qu&#8217;il adviendrait du climat si la concentration de CO2 doublait.  Ou si ceci ou cela arrivait.  Ces questions sont beaucoup mieux d\u00e9finies.  La citation de Hansen est souvent utilis\u00e9e pour soutenir que les mod\u00e8les sont si peu fiables qu&#8217;ils sont inutiles pour aider \u00e0 \u00e9valuer la situation.  En fait, c&#8217;est le contraire &#8211; ce que Hansen dit, c&#8217;est que l&#8217;incertitude des mod\u00e8les (par exemple la sensibilit\u00e9 climatique) est maintenant plus faible que l&#8217;incertitude sur les sc\u00e9narios d&#8217;\u00e9mission (c&#8217;est-\u00e0-dire l&#8217;incertitude sur les for\u00e7ages, qui est responsable de l&#8217;incertitude des projections). <\/p>\n<p>Ensuite, page 315, on trouve \u00ab dans les ann\u00e9es 70, tous les sp\u00e9cialistes du climat croyaient qu&#8217;une p\u00e9riode glaciaire allait arriver (et comme d\u00e9crit en page 563, le professeur du MIT le pense toujours).  Cette affirmation n&#8217;est pas correcte.  Les <a href=\"http:\/\/www.wmconnolley.org.uk\/sci\/iceage\/\">pages de William Conolley<\/a> sur ce sujet sont une lecture \u00e9clairante pour ceux qui voudraient plus d&#8217;information. <\/p>\n<p>Un autre sujet qui revient souvent dans les discussions sur les donn\u00e9es de temp\u00e9rature de surface est l&#8217;impact de l&#8217;effet \u00ab \u00eelot de chaleur urbaine \u00bb (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php?p=44\">urban heat island effect<\/a>).  Il appara\u00eet page 370.  Il est incontestable que les centres de villes comme New-York sont significativement plus chauds que les r\u00e9gions avoisinantes.  Ce sujet a \u00e9t\u00e9 \u00e9tudi\u00e9 en d\u00e9tail et des corrections sont faites pour en tenir compte dans toutes les analyses des \u00e9volutions de <a href=\"http:\/\/pubs.giss.nasa.gov\/abstracts\/2001\/HansenRuedyS.html\">temp\u00e9rature globale<\/a>.  Pour voir s&#8217;il pourrait encore y avoir un effet r\u00e9siduel dans les donn\u00e9es corrig\u00e9es, un article r\u00e9cent (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.nature.com\/cgi-taf\/DynaPage.taf?file=\/nature\/journal\/v432\/n7015\/full\/432290a_r.html&#038;filetype=&#038;dynoptions=\">Parker, Nature, 2004<\/a>) examine les diff\u00e9rences de tendance entre les conditions venteuses et sans vent.  On sait que le vent diminue l&#8217;effet du r\u00e9chauffement urbain.  La tendance au r\u00e9chauffement devrait donc \u00eatre plus faible les jours venteux que les jours calmes, si cet effet restait important.  Les deux tendances sont en fait quasi identiques.  Il existe d&#8217;autres observations qui valident les ajustements de temp\u00e9rature de surface.  Ce sont les oc\u00e9ans, qui se r\u00e9chauffent depuis plusieurs d\u00e9cennies.  M\u00eame <a href=\"http:\/\/www-eaps.mit.edu\/faculty\/lindzen.htm\">Richard Lindzen<\/a>, habituellement un archi-sceptique sur ces sujets, a d\u00e9clar\u00e9 que \u00ab les augmentations de la temp\u00e9rature des oc\u00e9ans soutiennent les donn\u00e9es de temp\u00e9rature de surface \u00bb (<a href=\"http:\/\/eaps.mit.edu\/faculty\/lindzen\/204_2001GL014360.pdf\">Lindzen 2002<\/a>).  Une autre d\u00e9monstration que les corrections sont suffisantes: sur le continent Nord-am\u00e9ricain, o\u00f9 de nombreuses villes ont un effet de r\u00e9chauffement du centre ville, la moyenne des donn\u00e9es corrig\u00e9es est en fait plut\u00f4t plate (page 88) \u2013 c&#8217;est-\u00e0-dire que le fort biais urbain des USA n&#8217;influence pas la moyenne r\u00e9gionale ou globale de temp\u00e9rature.  <\/p>\n<p>Un th\u00e8me central du livre est l&#8217;augmentation du niveau des mers.  Vanuatu re\u00e7oit une attention sp\u00e9ciale, car ses habitants se sentent \u00e0 juste titre concern\u00e9s par la transformation de leur \u00eele \u2013 tr\u00e8s basse \u2013 en mar\u00e9cage.  Le niveau des mers est toutefois quelque chose d&#8217;horriblement difficile \u00e0 mesurer.  Les jauges \u00e0 mar\u00e9e donnent des donn\u00e9es parasit\u00e9es et sont en g\u00e9n\u00e9ral situ\u00e9es sur les c\u00f4tes continentales.  La tendance globale estim\u00e9e \u00e0 partir de ces jauges est de 1,7 \u00e0 2,4 mm\/an.  Mais le niveau des mers n&#8217;augmente pas partout.  La Scandinavie est toujours en train de rebondir depuis la derni\u00e8re p\u00e9riode glaciaire et la mer recule de ses c\u00f4tes.  Les observations par satellite (TOPEX \/ POSEIDON et JASON) peuvent donner une image globale.  Elles indiquent que, m\u00eame si l&#8217;augmentation moyenne des derni\u00e8res ann\u00e9es (<a href=\"http:\/\/sealevel.colorado.edu\/\">2,8 mm\/an<\/a>) est significativement plus grande que la tendance de long terme estim\u00e9e \u00e0 partir des jauges de mar\u00e9e, les changements du niveau des mers sont en fait tr\u00e8s dynamiques.  On observe beaucoup de comportements diff\u00e9rents, en particulier dans le pacifique, associ\u00e9s \u00e0 la variabilit\u00e9 de El Ni\u00f1o, qui pourraient \u00eatre reli\u00e9es au fait qu&#8217;on n&#8217;observe pas d&#8217;augmentation du niveau des mers \u00e0 Vanuatu depuis 40 ans.  Curieusement, Crichton cite les donn\u00e9es estim\u00e9es des satellites pour pr\u00e9tendre que le taux d&#8217;augmentation n&#8217;a pas augment\u00e9 r\u00e9cemment (\u00ab [le niveau des mers] augmente rapidement, les satellites le prouvent.  En fait, ils ne le prouve pas \u00bb), page 424.  Comparer des donn\u00e9es de satellites et des jauges \u00e0 mar\u00e9e pose clairement des probl\u00e8mes.  Les donn\u00e9es des satellites peuvent aussi avoir leur propres probl\u00e8mes (voir les <a href=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php?p=61\">donn\u00e9es MSU<\/a>), mais les valeurs cit\u00e9es ne soutiennent en fait pas du tout l&#8217;affirmation du livre.  Il serait toutefois plus juste de dire que les donn\u00e9es obtenues par satellite sont compatibles avec une augmentation r\u00e9cente du taux, plut\u00f4t qu&#8217;une preuve qu&#8217;il existe effectivement.<br \/>\nIl n&#8217;y a que peu de v\u00e9ritables erreurs, mais, pour \u00eatre g\u00e9n\u00e9reux, elles ont probablement \u00e9chapp\u00e9s \u00e0 l&#8217;\u00e9diteur.  Par exemple, page 187, \u00ab une temp\u00e9rature plus \u00e9lev\u00e9e entra\u00eene plus de vapeur d&#8217;eau dans l&#8217;air et donc moins de nuages. \u00bb  On peut supposer qu&#8217;il voulait dire que si les temp\u00e9rature sont plus \u00e9lev\u00e9es, l&#8217;humidit\u00e9 relative pourrait \u00eatre plus basse (et il pourrait alors y avoir moins de nuage).  A la page 368, \u00ab les r\u00e9gions agricoles sont plus chaudes que les for\u00eats. \u00bb  C&#8217;est probablement une confusion avec la question du r\u00e9chauffement urbain, mais l&#8217;effet r\u00e9el est le contraire: les zones agricoles ont un alb\u00e9do plus \u00e9lev\u00e9 que les for\u00eats, refl\u00e8tent plus de radiations solaire et sont donc plus froides.  En fait, m\u00eame si ce n&#8217;est pas encore compl\u00e8tement quantifi\u00e9, il semble qu&#8217;il y ait eu un terme significatif de refroidissement dans le budget global des 150 derni\u00e8res ann\u00e9es.  A la page 461, \u00ab Le Gro\u00ebnland montre que, dans les derniers centaines de milliers d&#8217;ann\u00e9es, il y a eu 4 changements abrupts de climat. \u00bb Plut\u00f4t 40, en fait.  Et c&#8217;est probablement sous-\u00e9valu\u00e9, puisque le Gro\u00ebnland ne peut garder des traces de changements qui ne seraient apparus que sous les tropiques. <\/p>\n<p>A la fin du livre, Crichton nous donne son message.  Il r\u00e9it\u00e8re les points principaux de sa th\u00e8se, c&#8217;est-\u00e0-dire que certains vont trop loin pour susciter un soutien (et j&#8217;ai quelque sympathie avec ceci) et que, parce que nous ne savons pas tout, nous ne savons en fait rien (ici, je me permets de ne pas partager son avis).  Il donne aussi son estimation (~0,8\u00b0C) du r\u00e9chauffement global pour le 21\u00e8me si\u00e8cle et pr\u00e9tend que, puisque les mod\u00e8les diff\u00e8rents de 400% dans leurs estimations, sa supposition est aussi bonne que les leurs.  Ceci n&#8217;est pas vrai.  L&#8217;ensemble des mod\u00e8les actuels ont une sensibilit\u00e9 climatique moyenne d&#8217;environ 3\u00b0C pour un doublement des concentrations de CO2 (dans l&#8217;intervalle de 2,5 \u00e0 4\u00b0C) (r\u00e9union du GIEC de Paris, juillet 2004), soit une incertitude de 30%.  Comme on l&#8217;a vu ci-dessus, les plus grandes incertitudes sur l&#8217;avenir sont l&#8217;\u00e9conomie, la technologie et le taux de d\u00e9veloppement.  La cause principale de l&#8217;\u00e9tendue de l&#8217;intervalle de 1,5 \u00e0 5,8\u00b0C donn\u00e9 par le GIEC pour 2100 est en fait la vari\u00e9t\u00e9 des sc\u00e9narios utilis\u00e9s.  Sans meilleure information, si on supposait (incorrectement) que tous les sc\u00e9narios \u00e9taient \u00e9galement probables, l&#8217;erreur autour de la moyenne de3,6\u00b0C serait de 60%, et non de 400%.  Crichton sugg\u00e8re \u00e9galement que la plus grande partie de ses 0,8\u00b0C viendrait des changements dans l&#8217;utilisation des sols.  C&#8217;est en fait extr\u00eamement improbable puisque l&#8217;utilisation des sols a en fait un effet de refroidissement (comme discut\u00e9 plus haut).  Des simulations bas\u00e9es sur les lois de la physique sont en fait meilleure que les devinettes.  <\/p>\n<p>Finalement, dans l&#8217;appendice, avec une logique assez curieuse, Crichton compare le r\u00e9chauffement global avec le mouvement eug\u00e9niste au 19\u00e8me si\u00e8cle.  Il soutient que, puisque l&#8217;eug\u00e9nisme \u00e9tait \u00e9tudi\u00e9 dans de prestigieuses universit\u00e9s et soutenus par des organisations caritatives, et qu&#8217;il en va de m\u00eame actuellement pour le r\u00e9chauffement global, ils doivent \u00eatre li\u00e9s d&#8217;un fa\u00e7on ou d&#8217;une autre.  Vraisemblablement, l&#8217;auteur ne croit en fait pas que les recherches acad\u00e9miques soutenues par des fondations sont ipso facto mauvaises et malavis\u00e9es, mais c&#8217;est l&#8217;impression qu&#8217;il nous laisse.<br \/>\nEn r\u00e9sum\u00e9, je suis un peu d\u00e9\u00e7u, en particulier parce que, durant la phase de recherche pour son livre, Crichton est en fait venu dans notre labo pour discuter certains des th\u00e8mes avec moi et quelques coll\u00e8gues.  Je suppose que nous n&#8217;avons pas fait un tr\u00e8s bon boulot.  Jugeant de sa liste de lectures, la prose plut\u00f4t s\u00e8che des rapports du GIEC n&#8217;est pas \u00e0 la hauteur de quelques textes plus piquants \u00e9crits par  des sceptiques.  Si RealClimate avait exist\u00e9 il y a quelques ann\u00e9es, peut-\u00eatre que tout se serait pass\u00e9 diff\u00e9remment.  <\/p>\n<p>Mise \u00e0 jour: A la demande populaire, voici une version mise \u00e0 jour du graphique original de 1998.  mes excuses pour mon manque de comp\u00e9tences avec photoshop.  <\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" data-src=\"http:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/images\/00fig1.gif\" align=bottom src=\"data:image\/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB3aWR0aD0iMSIgaGVpZ2h0PSIxIiB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciPjwvc3ZnPg==\" class=\"lazyload\"><\/p>\n<p>Mise \u00e0 jour du 16 f\u00e9vrier 2005: <a href=\"http:\/\/www.boston.com\/news\/globe\/ideas\/articles\/2005\/02\/06\/checking_crichtons_footnotes\/\">Chris Mooney<\/a> fait aussi un bon travail en v\u00e9rifiant quelques notes de bas de page du livre de Crichton.<br \/>\n<\/lang_fr><\/p>\n<!-- kcite active, but no citations found -->\n<\/div> <!-- kcite-section 74 -->","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>In a departure from normal practice on this site, this post is a commentary on a piece of out-and-out fiction (unlike most of the other posts which deal with a more subtle kind). Michael Crichton&#8217;s new novel &#8220;State of Fear&#8221; is about a self-important NGO hyping the science of the global warming to further the [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_exactmetrics_skip_tracking":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_active":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_note":"","_exactmetrics_sitenote_category":0,"_genesis_hide_title":false,"_genesis_hide_breadcrumbs":false,"_genesis_hide_singular_image":false,"_genesis_hide_footer_widgets":false,"_genesis_custom_body_class":"","_genesis_custom_post_class":"","_genesis_layout":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[12,5,1,3,9,28],"tags":[],"class_list":{"0":"post-74","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","6":"category-arctic-and-antarctic","7":"category-climate-modelling","8":"category-climate-science","9":"category-greenhouse-gases","10":"category-instrumental-record","11":"category-reviews","12":"entry"},"aioseo_notices":[],"post_mailing_queue_ids":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/74","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=74"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/74\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8247,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/74\/revisions\/8247"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=74"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=74"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.realclimate.org\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=74"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}